A Review and Synthesis of Recreation Ecology Research Findings
The 50th anniversary of the US Wilderness Act of 1964 presents a worthy opportunity to review our collective knowledge on how recreation visitation affects wilderness and protected natural expanse resource. Studies of recreation impacts, examined inside the recreation ecology field of study, accept spanned 80 years and generated more than 1,200 citations. This article examines the recreation ecology literature most relevant to wilderness and backcountry, with a focus on visitor impacts to vegetation, soil, wildlife, and water resource. We also review relationships with influential factors, such equally the amount of use, visitor beliefs, and vegetation blazon. An understanding of these impacts and their relationships with influential factors is necessary for land managers seeking to identify adequate limits of touch or selecting management actions that will finer avoid or minimize resources impacts.
Management and Policy Implications: Outdoor recreation in wilderness and other protected natural areas is an important value and ecosystem service to our lodge, but visitor activities tin also induce undesirable effects to diverse ecological components and visitor experience. To integrate wilderness protection and recreation objectives, managers require objective information on recreation impacts and then they can evaluate the ecological and social significance of impacts as well as their control. This commodity synthesized recreation ecology inquiry intended for enhancing our understanding of recreation impacts while advancing the practice of visitor bear on direction. The results propose that advances in recreation ecology have gone further with vegetation and soil, whereas research on wildlife impacts has gained momentum in recent years. Recreation impacts on water quality remains a less active research area. The body of knowledge on recreation impacts has demonstrated its utility in informing visitor planning, management and educational activity strategies, and actions being implemented in wilderness and other protected natural areas.
Since passage of the 1964 Wilderness Human action, the Us National Wilderness Preservation System (NWPS) has grown from 54 units and nine one thousand thousand acres to 758 units and nearly 110 one thousand thousand acres. one The NWPS currently represents about 5% of the entire United States, an area slightly larger than the country of California. 4 federal land management agencies are responsible for the stewardship of these protected lands: the National Park Service (≈44 million acres), the Forest Service (≈36 million acres), the Fish and Wildlife Service (≈21 million acres), and the Agency of State Management (≈ix million acres). The professional person stewardship of these lands to maintain their wilderness character, defined in office as undeveloped lands retained in their natural status and unhindered by human actions, requires objective information about internal and external threats (Landres et al. 2011). Recreational visitation, while recognized in the Wilderness Act as a core traditional use of wilderness, is also a primary internal threat to wilderness preservation.
This article provides a review and synthesis of the environmental impacts associated with recreational visitation of wilderness and other protected natural areas, along with a discussion of influential factors affecting the nature and severity of these impacts. The term impact in this article denotes any undesirable visitor-related biophysical change to natural resource. Such knowledge provides an essential footing for deliberations and decisions regarding the acceptability of visitor impacts and the selection of effective management actions designed to avoid or minimize resource impacts. The field of study that generates this knowledge is known as recreation environmental, which has been defined every bit the scientific study of ecological changes associated with company activities, including the office of influential factors (Leung et al. 2008, Monz et al. 2010a). This review is derived principally from studies conducted in designated wilderness areas and comparable wildland and backcountry settings in the Us, collectively referred to as protected natural areas. Studies from other countries are also included if they are directly relevant to specific impact topics. Boosted discussion on this subject matter is available from Liddle (1997), Newsome et al. (2012), and Hammitt et al. (2015).
Recreation visitation to protected natural areas inevitably degrades natural resource intended for protection, creating tension between recreation provision and resource protection goals and mandates. Vegetation is trampled, soil is eroded, water quality is altered, and wild fauna are disturbed. These impacts occur primarily in locations that receive substantial visitation. A primary goal of protected surface area and wilderness management is to limit the areal extent of company impacts, the human "footprint" of highly disturbed state. Of equal importance is limiting the severity of touch on to levels that are not ecologically, managerially, esthetically, or functionally significant. The professional person management of visitor impacts to protected natural areas requires a thorough understanding of the various types of impacts, their severity, extent, and spatial distribution, and the influence of factors, some of which are causal factors such as the corporeality of employ and company behavior, and others are noncausal factors such as environmental susceptibility. This review focuses on recreation impacts to vegetation, soil, water, and wildlife, including the role of key influential factors. Near of these impacts occur on or near recreation sites (e.g., campsites, picnic sites, boat launches, and vista points) and trail corridors. The accompanying article by Marion (2016) focuses on describing the well-nigh effective company touch on direction strategies and tactics derived from recreation ecology science and management experience.
Synthesis of Research
Vegetation Impacts—Light Traffic
Visitor trampling associated with recreational activities results in a variety of impacts to vegetation, including a reduction in vegetation comprehend, acme, and biomass, changes in species composition, and the introduction and spread of nonnative plants (Figure ane). Institute resistance is the intrinsic capacity of vegetation to withstand the direct consequence of trampling by feet, hooves, and tires (Liddle 1997). Under light recreational traffic, most plants answer with a reduction in plant height. Even light trampling volition break rigid stems, which can halt flower and seed development and reduce constitute vigor (Cole 1987, Barros and Pickering 2015).
Figure 1.
Diagram of vegetation and soil impacts resulting from man trampling.
Figure 1.
Diagram of vegetation and soil impacts resulting from human trampling.
A meta-assay of trampling studies by Pescott and Stewart (2014) found that plant morphological characteristics strongly influence the response of vegetation to trampling disturbance. For example, the brittle woody stems of shrubs and small trees and rigid stems of tall forbs (herbs) are susceptible to trampling damage, and their breakage eliminates the growing tips (perennating buds), flowers, and seed production (Cole 1995b, Cole and Monz 2002). In contrast, grasses and sedges (graminoids) with turf or tuft growth forms and depression-growing herbs had substantially greater trampling resistance due to their flexible stems and leaves and perennating buds at or below the ground surface (Hill and Pickering 2009, Striker et al. 2011). In an experimental trampling study on an alpine grass and sedge turf, 500 passes past a hiker reduced cover 40%, whereas the aforementioned level of trampling in a subalpine woods with a forb and fern understory reduced cover 97% (Cole 1995a).
Studies show that these differences in morphology and trampling resistance are highly correlated with sunlight intensity (Liddle 1997, Cole and Monz 2003). Nonwoody shade-tolerant plants require large leaf surfaces supported by strong rigid stems that are hands crushed. In contrast, lord's day-loving plants (particularly graminoids) tin can obtain the necessary sunlight with modest or narrow leaves and flexible stems. In a report of designated campsites in the Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness (BWCAW), Marion (1984) found that the corporeality of sunlight was the well-nigh influential predictor of vegetation cover, ranging from an boilerplate of 4% cover on shady campsites (≥75% tree cover) to 52% cover on sunny campsites (≤25% tree cover).
Constitute resilience, the capacity of vegetation to recover from trampling damage, is another important plant characteristic to consider (Liddle 1997). Like to found resistance under weather of light traffic, woody plants and alpine herbs with rigid stems are least resilient because all perennating buds are lost when stems are broken or crushed. Cleaved woody branches can require years to recover, and alpine herbs are often unable to recover sufficiently to bloom within the growing season. Thus, woody plants and alpine herbs more often than not have depression resilience (Cole 1995b), and their rates of germination and survival under trampling force per unit area are quite low (Marion and Cole 1996). Numerous studies have documented the substantially greater resilience of graminoids as a group, attributed primarily to stem flexibility, leaf durability, and fast growth rates (Sun and Liddle 1993, Pickering 2010). Plant resilience is as well highly dependent on environmental attributes: plant recovery is by and large college in locations with greater sunlight, soil fertility, wet, and long growing seasons (Marion and Cole 1996, Hartley 1999, Pescott and Stewart 2014).
Vegetation Impacts—Moderate/High Traffic
Equally recreational action increases beyond initial and depression levels of traffic, plant comprehend and biomass are reduced as plant wellness and vigor are degraded (Effigy 1). Harm and removal of leaves renders plants unable to produce sugars and store carbohydrates in roots, which slows or halts flowering and seed production and reduces plant growth in subsequent years (Liddle 1997, Hartley 1999). Plants that are sensitive to trampling are profoundly reduced in size and cover or are removed by moderate levels of trampling, whereas more resistant species may even increase their number and cover (Cole and Monz 2003, Cole 2013). Such compositional changes in vegetation occur slowly over many years, just the cumulative long-term furnishings can be substantial, e.g., forest herbs are replaced by grasses, low-growing herbs, and sometimes mosses (Marion 1984, Mortenson 1989, Liddle 1997). Over time, additional compositional changes frequently occur from the introduction and dispersal of nonnative plants, which may out-compete and replace native species (Underwood et al. 2004, Dickens et al. 2005, Pickering and Hill 2007). Fortunately, the bulk of nonnative plants are disturbance associated and shade intolerant; however, a few can naturalize and become invasive, outcompeting native plants in undisturbed settings (Marion et al. 1986). These are the "high-priority" invasive species that country managers generally target for removal. Additional research is needed to make up one's mind the potential threats posed by introduction of nonnative plants along breezy (visitor-created) trails or from new activities such as geocaching.
Higher levels of trampling, including intensive traffic at the eye of campsites and trails, generally remove all institute cover (Figures 1 and 2) (Monz et al. 2010b). The almost trampling-resistant species often survive merely in slightly less trafficked peripheral areas, such every bit near trail and campsite borders. As previously noted, other factors, such equally the amount of sunlight and soil nutrients or moisture, are also important determinants of vegetation survival. For example, trails and campsites in meadows can retain substantially greater plant groundcover than those in adjacent forest (Marion and Cole 1996). Long-term impacts from tree damage and felling, tree root exposure, and loss of tree regeneration tin result in a reduction and loss of the forest canopy. Invasive species introduced to trails and campsites can spread to side by side areas through self-propagation over fourth dimension (Pickering and Hill 2007).
Figure ii.
Although meadow grasses are more resistant and resilient to traffic than forest herbs, they are eliminated under heavy traffic. Trail management actions, such as adding woody droppings, rocks, and transplanted vegetation (pictured) can assistance confine traffic to the intended tread.
Figure 2.
Although meadow grasses are more than resistant and resilient to traffic than woods herbs, they are eliminated nether heavy traffic. Trail management actions, such as calculation woody debris, rocks, and transplanted vegetation (pictured) tin assistance confine traffic to the intended tread.
Every bit described in the preceding discussion, herbaceous vegetation in forests is apace lost nether fifty-fifty relatively low levels of traffic. When the majority of vegetation comprehend is lost, further recreational traffic or utilise causes little additional impact to vegetation if visitors stay on well-established trails and recreation sites. Traffic tin can double or triple with express increases in vegetation impact, a finding that has been illustrated in a large number of studies (Cole 1995a, Leung and Marion 2000, Monz et al. 2013). This curvilinear employ-impact relationship is illustrated in Effigy 3, where 70% of the vegetation loss occurring on high-apply BWCAW campsites (≥60 nights/year) has already occurred on sites receiving simply 10 nights of camping/year (Marion 1984).
Effigy 3.
The generalized curvilinear use-impact human relationship, depicted by the thick black line, every bit illustrated past measurements of six bear upon indicators assessed on campsites in the BWCAW (Marion 1984). Resources impacts are expressed equally a per centum of the total touch assessed on the loftier-utilize sites.
Figure iii.
The generalized curvilinear use-impact human relationship, depicted past the thick black line, as illustrated past measurements of six impact indicators assessed on campsites in the BWCAW (Marion 1984). Resource impacts are expressed as a percentage of the total impact assessed on the high-apply sites.
The apply-impact relationship is somewhat dissimilar for the more resistant and resilient graminoids. Grasses and sedges tin withstand prolonged depression levels of traffic, particularly in sunny locations. For case, Cole and Monz (2003) found that after four nights of camping, meadow sites recovered completely after 1 twelvemonth, whereas forested sites incurred impacts after only one nighttime of use and did non fully recover after 3 years. Still, moderate to high levels of traffic volition reduce and remove graminoid comprehend and then soil is even so exposed in loftier-traffic areas.
Impacts to Soil
Initial and low levels of trampling generally affect but vegetation and organic litter, such every bit dead found leaves, grass, needles, and twigs. Initial trampling flattens and begins to degrade organic litter. Increased levels of trampling cause organic litter to be pulverized, which accelerates removal past wind or h2o or decomposition into the underlying organic soil (Figure i). Organic soils are then exposed to traffic, but their low density and lack of construction allows rapid displacement and loss, particularly due to erosion in sloping terrain. Organic soils in flatter terrain blot water and become mucky, particularly in low areas along trails. On recreation sites the loss of organic soil over fourth dimension can expose large areas of underlying mineral soil, increasing soil temperatures and decreasing soil moisture. The loss of insulating organic litter and soil also reduces soil temperatures during the winter, particularly under compacted snow along snowmobile and cross-country ski trails, causing snowpack to remain frozen longer and impacting underlying vegetation and soil (Wanek 1971, Eagleston and Rubin 2013).
Recreation trampling quickly compacts exposed mineral soil (Figure one). The ground force per unit area of nonmotorized recreational traffic ranges from approximately 4.12 pounds per square inch for hikers and four.98 pounds per foursquare inch for mountain bikers (Thurston and Reader 2001) to 62.3 pounds per square inch for a shod horse and rider (Liddle 1997). These mechanical forces crusade soil particles to rearrange and pack together more than tightly, increasing soil density and decreasing pore space. The degree of compaction is a office of the type and amount of recreational traffic (Lei 2004, Pickering et al. 2010) and several physical factors. Soils with a broad distribution of particle sizes are more compactable than those with equal-sized particles (Liddle 1997, Lei 2004). Soil compaction is limited by higher wet levels and/or higher organic content (Marion and Merriam 1985a, Liddle 1997) but tin can occur apace with limited traffic once organic materials are essentially lost. For example, on BWCAW campsites, 97% of the soil compaction assessed on high-utilize sites (≥threescore nights/year) had already occurred at moderate-use levels (20–twoscore nights/year) (Marion and Merriam 1985b) (Figure 3).
Compacted soils on recreation sites create a smooth hard surface that impedes seed germination and penetration by plant roots (Alessa and Earnhart 2000). Soil macroporosity is reduced when soils are compacted, limiting air and h2o permeability and contributing to reductions in soil biota (Liddle 1997). Developed campsites tin feel upward to a 20-fold reduction in water infiltration rates (James et al. 1979), resulting in less water available to plants, which may feel higher mortality during droughts (Marion and Merriam 1985b). Compacted soils on flat recreation sites cause h2o to pool, contributing to muddiness. Compaction of trail substrates helps deter soil displacement, but reduced water infiltration rates contribute to trail muddiness in areas with poor drainage, causing trail widening and the cosmos of secondary trails when trail users seek to circumvent muddy areas (Effigy 4) (Leung and Marion 1999a, Wimpey and Marion 2010).
Effigy 4.
Heavy horse traffic has compacted and incised the principal tread, which captures and retains water; subsequent hikers and horse riders seeking to avoid mudholes widen trails. Although state managers demand to provide usable trails, Get out No Trace guidelines enquire visitors to stay every bit close to the centre of the tread as possible to avoid trail widening.
Figure four.
Heavy horse traffic has compacted and incised the main tread, which captures and retains h2o; subsequent hikers and horse riders seeking to avoid mudholes widen trails. Although land managers need to provide usable trails, Exit No Trace guidelines enquire visitors to stay every bit shut to the center of the tread every bit possible to avoid trail widening.
Soil erosion and loss, peculiarly water-based erosion issues, are perhaps the most significant long-term recreation impacts and have received attention from recreation ecologists (Figure 1) (Olive and Marion 2009). Soil loss from wind can occur when trail or recreation site substrates are dry out and loose and lack protective vegetation or litter cover. Soil erosion from h2o flow is more mutual, particularly in sloping terrain and in regions with intermediate to high rainfall. Soil erosion is also governed by soil properties, primarily soil texture (particle size), but also organic matter content, structure, and permeability. For example, less erodible soils tin can be fine-textured clayey soils whose particles aggregate and resist detachment or coarse-textured sandy soils, which are highly permeable and have larger particle sizes that resist transport. Medium-textured soils with silt and fine sand are virtually susceptible to erosion; their fine particles are hands transported by water or wind, are less permeable, and lack stable aggregates.
Trails in sloping terrain can intercept and aqueduct water runoff, which can quickly erode trail substrates in areas lacking a sufficient density of constructive tread drainage features. When erosion occurs on sloping trails, rocks and roots are exposed, causing hikers to walk around them and widening trails just equally mud and water do in flatter terrains. Olive and Marion (2009) found that trail position, trail slope alignment angle, trail grade, type of use, and the proximity of water drainage features were the virtually significant determinants of soil loss from trails. Steep autumn-aligned trails (aligned perpendicular to profile lines) are particularly susceptible to erosion due to the difficulty of diverting water from their treads (Leung and Marion 1996). Trail grade is a commonly cited factor influencing soil loss, specially when grades exceed 10% and substrates lack native rock, applied gravel, or stonework (Farrell and Marion 2002, Nepal 2003).
Amount of apply can be a significant factor at the low end of the utilise spectrum, but other factors cited above and the intensity of tread management are more influential at college use levels (Farrell and Marion 2002, Nepal and Manner 2007). For example, Deluca et al. (1998) found that sediment yield from a trail after 1,000 passes was significantly higher than after 250 passes (both are at the low-use end of the trail use spectrum). Yet, several other studies found amount of use to exist a poor predictor of soil loss (Cole 1983, Farrell and Marion 2002, Dixon et al. 2004). Olive and Marion (2009) institute blazon of use to exist a substantially greater determinant of soil loss than corporeality of use, with equus caballus and all-terrain vehicle utilize contributing significantly greater amounts of soil loss than hiking and mountain biking.
Soil loss on recreation sites can also occur through sheet and rill erosion of exposed soils. Most recreation sites are located in flatter terrain so soil loss is generally limited, although portions of sites, such every bit slopes down to and forth shorelines, can feel substantial soil loss. Exposed tree roots provide common visual evidence of long-term soil loss. Authors J.L. Marion and H. Eagleston assessed soil loss on 81 long-established (>40 years) BWCAW campsites in 2014 (unpub. data, Feb. 12, 2016), finding hateful soil loss to be 22.5 yd3, a substantial amount. The majority (fourteen.ix ydiii) was attributed to relatively small amounts of soil loss (2.4 in mean incision) occurring over the large flatter core use areas, whereas soil loss in steeper shoreline canoe landing areas (6.4 yd3) was essentially greater (ix.v in mean incision) merely quite limited spatially.
Soil loss is ecologically meaning due to the extremely irksome procedure of soil cosmos and the potential for secondary impacts from the eroded soils to water resources (eastward.g., turbidity and sedimentation). The managerial costs associated with limiting soil loss or repairing eroded areas can be substantial. Soil loss on trails and recreation sites is essentially permanent with respect to a human fourth dimension scale. Such long-term change is often considered to constitute resource "impairment," which virtually state management agencies are specifically charged to prevent. For visitors, eroded trails and recreation sites may exist difficult or unsafe to use or are esthetically displeasing. For example, trail treads that are rutted and have numerous exposed rocks and roots are functionally degraded; they slow traffic and increase the adventure of injuries.
Campfires can dramatically change the chemical backdrop of the soil. The burning of firewood results in a loss of soil nutrients and an increase in pH. Visitors who burn down paper with dyes, plastic, and other trash contribute to the product of toxic smoke and ash accumulations that tin can include a number of carcinogenic substances (Davies 2004). Campfires substantially modify soil properties, including a reduction in soil fauna, flora, and organic content; soil recovery tin require 10–fifteen years (Fenn et al. 1976, Cole and Dalle-Molle 1982). For these reasons, the creation of multiple burn down rings on campsites and the migration of fire sites around campsites over fourth dimension represent significant resources impacts.
With growing availability of long-term monitoring data, recreation ecologists are increasingly interested in the longitudinal changes in recreation site weather condition. For instance, Cole (2013) applied 2 monitoring approaches to track army camp conditions in seven wilderness areas over one to three decades. He found that soil and vegetation atmospheric condition on near campsites generally degraded to a maximum point followed by some improvements, which are owing to site direction deportment to concentrate recreational activities and rehabilitate impacted areas (Cole 2013).
Impacts to Water
Visitor impacts to water resource primarily concern the degradation of h2o quality, a cadre issue in the context of wilderness sustainability. Water quality deposition can be direct, resulting from activities with body contact, including pond, canoeing, and wading (Figure 5). Indirect impacts on water quality are besides common, contributed by recreation activities that have place along the shoreline or in close proximity, such as hiking, camping, and wildlife viewing (Cole and Landres 1996, Cole 2008, Hammitt et al. 2015).
Figure 5.
Heavy daily summertime traffic in the Zion National Park Narrows canyon results in substantial trampling to shoreline vegetation and river substrates, causing a number of direct and indirect impacts to riparian resource.
Figure 5.
Heavy daily summertime traffic in the Zion National Park Narrows canyon results in substantial trampling to shoreline vegetation and river substrates, causing a number of directly and indirect impacts to riparian resources.
Water impacts tin can exist categorized every bit concrete, biological, or chemical (Newsome et al. 2012, Hammitt et al. 2015). Physical impacts to water tin bring well-nigh temperature and flow alterations, suspended affair, increased turbidity, snow compaction, and erosion. Biological impacts on water typically involve the introduction or spread of nonnative flora and fauna and increases in coliform bacteria (due east.g., Escherichia coli) and protozoa (e.g., Giardia lamblia). Chemical impacts are primarily related to the influx of nutrients that lead to lowered dissolved oxygen rates but can besides include pollution impacts from soap, sunscreen, nutrient particles, and human and creature waste matter (Ursem et al. 2009).
Recreation impacts on water in wilderness and protected natural areas have non received every bit much attending equally that on other ecological components affected by visitor activities. Among the studies that exist, most focus on biological impacts and their implications. This is probably due to the fact that direct impacts by recreation are often localized, with minimal significance at the landscape level (Cole 2008). However, these impacts can be severe at local scales, peculiarly on minor but ecologically meaning h2o bodies such as small streams, springs, and potholes (Hammitt et al. 2015). For instance, Male monarch and Mace (1974) conducted ane of the early empirical studies on water quality impacts of wilderness recreation. Their results showed pregnant increases in coliform bacteria and phosphate concentration in h2o bodies virtually campsites in the BWCAW, with pit toilets being cited as the source of contamination.
Recent research has devoted more attention to the water quality effects of pack stock animals, whose trampling on vegetation has long been studied (Stanley et al. 1978). The contempo attention is driven partly by the information need for science-based planning and management efforts specific to pack stock use and partly by growing evidence that increasing presence of both humans and stock animals correlates with an increase of harmful bacteria in water, degrading water quality in wilderness areas (Deluca et al. 1998, Derlet and Carlson 2006, Clow et al. 2011, Kellogg et al. 2012). For instance, in the Sierra Nevada Wilderness, Derlet and Carlson (2006) constitute 12 of fifteen backcountry sites with pack-animate being traffic yielded high levels of coliform bacteria. Water conditions tested well-nigh some campsites in Yosemite, Kings Canyon, and Sequoia National Parks would not pass water quality regulations enforced by the state of California (Clow et al. 2011). Similarly, Reed and Rasnake (2016) found elevated levels of Eastward. coli and coliform bacteria in springs and streams near Appalachian Trail shelters inside Corking Smoky Mountains National Park, particularly during summertime months. Heavy visitation and traffic along stream and lake shorelines likewise causes vegetation trampling that can increment the incidence of erosion and nutrient influxes to water bodies (Madej et al. 1994, Clow et al. 2011, 2013). Nutrient loading in open bodies of water tin can contribute to algal blooms and decreased water quality (Hammitt et al. 2015). One assay on the Merced River in Yosemite National Park establish a 27% increment in channel changes, including bank erosion due to heavy human being traffic (Madej et al. 1994).
Swimming, canoeing, and kayaking are besides pop activities increasingly pursued in wilderness waterways. These straight activities stir otherwise settled bottom sediments, leading to turbidity, nutrient increases, and reduced levels of dissolved oxygen (Marion and Sober 1987, Butler et al. 1996, Sunderland et al. 2007). This suspended matter can take substantial effects on h2o clarity and plant photosynthesis, harming aquatic vegetation, macroinvertebrates, and other fauna that live in or near water (Marion and Carr 2009). Increased nutrients spur heavy aquatic plant growth, reduced oxygen levels, and algal blooms (Hammitt et al. 2015).
Impacts to Wild fauna
Wildlife are an integral component of wilderness ecosystems but also an of import chemical element of the wilderness recreation experience. The increasing presence of human visitors and their interactions with wildlife can cause changes in physiology and behavior that compromise wild fauna health (Knight and Gutzwiller 1995, Hammitt et al. 2015). Some interactions are unsafe, and the resulting changes in wildlife beliefs may lead to unpopular and plush management decisions to move or impale problem animals (east.thou., nutrient-attracted bears).
A meaning body of enquiry exists on wildlife environmental in wilderness (Schwartz et al. 2016). Notwithstanding, inquiry focusing specifically on recreation impacts to wildlife was sparse until the 1990s. Earlier research on this topic has been summarized by Boyle and Samson (1985), Knight and Gutzwiller (1995), and Hammitt et al. (2015). Since the 1990s, there has been growing involvement in recreation impacts to wildlife from wildlife scientists, recreation ecologists, and human dimensions researchers (Taylor and Knight 2003, Neumann et al. 2009, Monz et al. 2010a, Hammitt et al. 2015). Another aspect of wild animals impact research is related to racket furnishings, as reviewed past Barber et al. (2010). The slower growth of this research topic is understandable, given some unique challenges due to the various and complex contexts of interactions, spatial and temporal lag of the effects, and varying responses due partly to learned behavior. It is ofttimes more challenging to make generalizations about recreation impacts on wild animals based on direct observations or other measures of wildlife-human interaction (Pomerantz et al. 1988, Monz et al. 2013).
Researchers accept classified human impact to wildlife as following iv main routes: exploitation, disturbance, habitat alteration, and pollution (Pomerantz et al. 1988, Knight and Gutzwiller 1995). Exploitation entails immediate death of wildlife (vehicle collisions), whereas disturbance results in harassment that tin lead to the temporal or spatial displacement of wildlife from favorable to less favorable habitat. Both are forms of directly impacts and are the result of immediate wild animals behavioral responses to a recreationist or recreation activeness (Cole and Landres 1996, Neumann et al. 2009, Hammitt et al. 2015). Alternatively, habitat alteration and pollution are indirect forms of impact considering habitat is altered, with changes to soil, water, flora and brute, and/or the associated furnishings of introduced pollutants, flora, or fauna (Knight and Gutzwiller 1995). Indirect impacts can cause an alteration in behavior, distribution, survivorship, and reproductive power (Pomerantz et al. 1988, Cole and Landres 1995, Hammitt et al. 2015).
Human-wildlife interactions effect in varying wild animals responses due to the characteristics of the man activity (the amount, blazon, timing, predictability, and frequency of human interactions and the beliefs of visitors), the wildlife (their individuality, the timing of their breeding, nesting, and rearing or immature), and other factors (Taylor and Knight 2003). In Point Reyes National Seashore in northern California, Becker et al. (2012) recorded tule elk (Cervus elephus nannodes) responses (standing, walking away, and running) to off-trail hikers, off-shore boats, and other factors. Their results revealed that off-trail hikers triggered a college level of disturbance behavior on elk than off-shore boats. Other effects, such as physiological or population-level responses, are unknown and represent of import future research needs.
Wildlife responses to visitors also vary in susceptibility to primary routes of impacts depending on man-wildlife characteristics, visitor or wild fauna grouping size, and wild animals type, age, and sex (Knight and Cole 1995, Steidl and Powell 2006). For example, in Yellowstone National Park, overnight camping in wilderness areas accept contradistinct feeding and behavioral characteristics of the endangered grizzly bear (Ursus arctos). Coleman et al. (2013) plant that grizzly bears were 35% more likely to roam in locations less than 650 ft of an occupied campsite, and 56% more probable to roam within 650 and 1,300 ft than in a random location. Even when campsite occupancy was ignored, grizzly bears were much more probable to roam within two,000 ft of a army camp, suggesting a learned nutrient-attraction beliefs (Figure 6) (Coleman et al. 2013). In addition, moose (Alces alces) in the backcountry areas of Sweden have responded to skiing disturbances resulting in increased move rates (doubling energetic usage per 2.2 pounds of torso weight while increasing action ranges) and short-term relocation (Neumann et al. 2009). Bird populations can besides be significantly impacted by harmful wildlife viewing, causing decreased nascence rates and nest abandonment. In the example of popular boreal bird populations in Oulanka National Park in Norway, Kangas et al. (2010) found that increased company pressure affected species composition as well as bird affluence, especially on open up-cup nesters such as the willow warbler (Phylloscopus trochilus) and woods sandpiper (Tringa glareola).
Figure 6.
Go out No Trace practices direct outdoor visitors to not feed wild fauna and to store nutrient and trash securely to prevent bears and other wildlife from associating humans with food.
Effigy 6.
Leave No Trace practices direct outdoor visitors to not feed wildlife and to store food and trash securely to preclude bears and other wildlife from associating humans with food.
Well-nigh research has examined brusque-term wildlife impacts; more studies investigating long-term assessments are needed (Cole and Landres 1996, Kangas et al. 2010). Inquiry on the efficacy of direction interventions to discourage wildlife feeding and other inappropriate man-wild fauna interactions is likewise needed. One case is an unobtrusive observation study on visitor and chipmunk (Tamias striatus) behavior in Zion National Park by Marion et al. (2008). They found that a persuasive communication handling improved visitor behavior (for more than details, run across Marion 2016). The long-term effects of wildlife feeding are more challenging to written report. Hopkins et al. (2014) nowadays an innovative approach to overcoming this challenge. They examined the long-term effects of bear management policies on the dietary composition of American black bears (Ursus americanus). Using stable isotopes derived from bear tissues, they estimated the proportion of homo-derived foodstuffs and food waste ("human being foods") in the diets of human nutrient-conditioned bears over the past century in Yosemite National Park. They found that the proportion of human foods in carry diets testify strong correspondence with bear management policies, from "intentional" feeding past park personnel and visitors (1923–1971) through the subsequent "no-feeding" policy, demonstrating the long-term furnishings of direction policy.
More enquiry is needed on how recreation impacts challenge and influence wildlife (Taylor and Knight 2003, Monz et al. 2010a, Marzano and Bully 2012). Existing studies look at charismatic megafauna such every bit grizzly bears, bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), and wolves (Canis lupus), but few investigate like implications on arthropods, reptiles, amphibians, or pocket-size fish (Monz et al. 2013). In add-on, some recreation activities are examined more closely than others, creating knowledge gaps. For example, hiking bear on studies are more than prevalent than studies of rock climbing or spelunking impacts (Taylor and Knight 2003). Revisiting and replicating past research and conducting longitudinal studies also assist us empathise wild fauna recreation impacts over a long menstruum of time (Hammitt et al. 2015).
Summary and Conclusions
Are we loving our wilderness and parks to death? We accept all heard that question, prompted by concerns that millions of visitors fatigued to our protected natural areas every twelvemonth are degrading the plants, soils, water, and wild animals these areas were established to protect. Although more intensively visited wildland areas are degraded by recreational visitation, the vast majority of protected lands see little utilize and touch on (Figure vii). Recreation ecology is a field of study that describes the types and severity of these resource impacts and how they are influenced past the type, number, and behavior of visitors. Managers require objective information describing these resource changes and then they can evaluate their effects on ecosystem weather condition and processes and the quality of visitor experiences. Information describing visitor resources impacts is as well needed to determine their acceptability and the need for management interventions. Recreation ecology as well investigates relationships between resources impacts and causal use-related factors and other influential factors such as topography, vegetation blazon, and substrates. Managers seeking to avoid or minimize visitor resource impacts require more than comprehensive information virtually these interrelationships so they can improve their company use direction practices and the sustainability of their recreation infrastructure, especially trails and recreation sites.
Figure 7.
Even for the highly visited Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness, more than 98% of the area remains in pristine natural condition. Field inquiry assistant Claire Underwood enjoying a BWCAW sunset afterwards a day spent measuring camping impacts. (Photo by Jeff Marion.)
Figure seven.
Even for the highly visited Purlieus Waters Canoe Surface area Wilderness, more than 98% of the area remains in pristine natural condition. Field research assistant Claire Underwood enjoying a BWCAW sunset later a day spent measuring camping impacts. (Photo past Jeff Marion.)
This article has provided a concise review and synthesis of the recreation ecology literature. It shows that we know most most impacts to vegetation and soil, that cognition almost impacts to wild animals has increased significantly since 2000, and that inquiry on impacts to h2o quality has lagged backside. The body of noesis on recreation impacts has demonstrated its utility in informing visitor planning, management and advice strategies and actions beingness implemented in wilderness and other protected natural areas (Cole 2009, Hammitt et al. 2015). Specifically, the contributions to management are nigh evident in indicator development in back up of carrying capacity and visitor use direction frameworks, the siting, management, and restoration of recreation infrastructure to increment sustainability, and the development of more effective Leave No Trace practices and persuasive communication techniques. More than discussion on the applications of this knowledge base is provided in the accompanying article (Marion 2016).
The trunk of recreation ecology literature continues to grow, peculiarly equally a result of the adoption of recreation ecology as a focused line of research past our international colleagues (Pickering 2010, Newsome et al. 2012, Barros and Pickering 2015). The improved cognition and sharing of constructive company impact management practices will certainly do good the management of U.s. wilderness, equally some impacts, influential factors, and management techniques are mutual across dissimilar protected natural areas.
Monz et al. (2010a) highlighted several significant research gaps in recreation ecology, including a stronger conceptual and theoretical foundation, ameliorate predictability through modeling, broadening spatial and temporal scales, integration with social and management science, and better understanding of synergistic effects with other stressors. These inquiry gaps remain and are directly applicable to the wilderness context. Other inquiry needs respond to the imbalance of research attention received by various wilderness ecosystems and recreation activities. The growing research interest in soundscape and dark sky as resource components presents a fruitful avenue for recreation environmental research that examines the impacts and visitor activities and related racket on these intangible resources important to both wildland ecology and visitor experiences (Hammitt et al. 2015).
Finally, emerging and diversifying recreation activities in wilderness partly enabled by technology, such every bit the use of global positioning systems (GPS) units or GPS-enabled smartphones for geocaching, off-trail hiking, locating campsites, biking, or fifty-fifty drones, besides present important enquiry questions near recreation impacts (both ecological and social) that must be addressed before we can place their appropriateness and effective management strategies. Some questions can exist addressed using conventional assessment and monitoring methods, but new enquiry designs and measures may exist required to fully empathize the impacts of some new activities. By addressing these research needs, nosotros volition go along to advance the science and practice of wilderness management, integrating the important goals of sustaining natural resources and providing outstanding opportunities for wilderness recreation.
Endnote
Acknowledgments: We thank Dr. Susan Fox for her support and the bearding reviewers who have provided constructive feedback.
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